Allison, Jacqueline Andrews (2000-AAT 9994081) :

High school students' problem solving with a graphing calculator

Arvold, Bridget Anne (1998 - AAT 9836936) :

Becoming a secondary mathematics teacher: A case study

Bankhead, Donald Ray (1996 - AAT 9705398) :

Older adults and computer courses: Preadult, adult, and contemporary factors in participation

Barron, Terry Lee (2000 - AAT 9996434) :

Mathematics learning and goal setting

Bell, M. Dora (1998 - AAT 9832785) :

Impact of an inductive conjecturing approach in a dynamic geometry-enhanced environment

Bell, Martha Clarice (1998 - AAT 9919998) :

The learning transfer of classroom management skills from a computer-assisted instruction program to teaching in the classroom

Biddlecomb, Barry Dean (1999 - AAT 9975122) :

The initial number sequence as a mechanism for the construction of fraction schemes

Boone, Glenda Lanette (1999 - AAT 9929020) :

Cognitive self-instruction to foster self-regulation in regular education students

Brill, Melissa Beth Hanzsek (1997 - AAT 9807089) :

The relationships among components of elementary teachers' mathematics education knowledge and their uses of technology in the mathematics classroom

Brombacher, Aarnout Abraham (1997 - AAT 1388007) :

High school mathematics teachers' transition to a standards-based curriculum

Brown, Angela Denise Humphrey (1997 - AAT 9735473) :

Making the invisible visible by challenging the myth of the universal teacher: African-American women postsecondary mathematics teachers

Case study of an advanced technology business incubator as a learning environment

A descriptive study of teacher's perceptions: The use of computers in secondary art classrooms

Chauvot, Jennifer B. (2000 - AAT 9984112) :

Conceptualizing mathematics teacher development in the context of reform

Choi, Sang Sook (1996 - AAT 9722455) :

Students' learning of geometry using computer software as a tool: Three case studies

Student motivation in a high school science laboratory: The impact of computers and other technologies on young adolescent physics students

Science education in an Amish Mennonite community and school: An examination of perception and application

Dulin, Jeffrey Matthew (2000 - AAT 9986917) :

Teacher ratings of early elementary students' social-emotional behavior

Ferguson, Sandra Shugart (1999 - AAT 9975103) :

The impact of alternate-day block scheduling on academic achievement

Freitag, Mark Alen (2000 - AAT 9984135) :

Examining communication in college calculus through note taking

Garrett, Lisa Williams (2000 - AAT 9994094) :

The impact of prekindergarten participation on first grade student achievement

Glenn, Susan Gerrnaine (2000 - AAT 9984138) :

The effects of a situated approach to musical performance education on student achievement: Practicing with an artificially intelligent computer accompanist

Gober, Deborah Ann (2000 - AAT 9836957) :

Four preservice secondary mathematics teachers and the complexities of gender equitable instruction

Hall, Jerri Ann Whitehurst (1999 - AAT 9975104) :

The impact of the Core Knowledge Curriculum on the achievement of seventh and eighth grade students

Harrison, Gloria Jane (1996 - AAT 9722438) :

Preferences of third- and fifth-grade students for social studies national standards content themes and learning activities

Herbst, Patricio Guillermo (1998 - AAT 9908601) :

What works as proof in the mathematics class

Homrich, Alicia Marie (1997 - AAT 9735523) :

Effects of group support system interactive computer technology on task-group processes of  psychology case presentations

Howell, Connie Ann (1996 - AAT 9726930) :

A comparison of Chapter One middle school students who received Jostens integrated Learning Instruction and those who received Chapter One services only

Jeon, Kyungsoon (1999 - AAT 9949507) :

Teacher in transition: A mathematics teacher's understanding of teaching with the graphing calculator

Kim, Jungae (1996 - AAT 9636404) :

The impact of the nongraded program on students' affective domains and cognitive domains

Lafronza, Vincnet (1997 - AAT 9726932) :

The interaction of adult learning styles and instructional design: Implications for the design of computer-assisted instruction

Lanier, Susie (1999 - AAT 9928955) :

Students' understanding of linear modeling in a college mathematical modeling course

Leslie, Awanna (1998 - AAT 9836330) :

The effects of an after-school tutorial program on the reading and mathematics achievement, failure rate, and discipline referral rate of students in a rural middle school

LouAnn, Lovin (2000 - AAT 9986943) :

In the eyes of the beholder: Elementary preservice teachers' experiences in a reform-based mathematics methods course

Matos, Jose (1999 - AAT 9928965) :

Cognitive models for the concept of angle

Teacher self-efficacy and computer utilization

Mesa, Vilma (1996 - AAT 1383728) :

The role of the graphing calculator in solving problems on functions

Messer, Stanley (1996 - AAT 9722441) :

Impact of the Georgia remedial education policies on reading and mathematics achievement of students in Bibb County

Moody, Vivian (1997 - AAT 9735547) :

Giving voice to African-Americans who have been successful with school mathematics

The implementation of an electronic performance support system for teachers: An examination of usage, performance, and attitudes

Nabors, Wanda King (2000 - AAT 9986949) :

Students' conceptual constructs involved in solving proportional reasoning problems within a computer microworld environment

Papish, Alan (2000 - AAT 9986952) :

The congruence of student and parent views of student learning

Park, Mangoo (1999 - AAT 9975168) :

Numerical development of Korean-English bilingual children: A constructivist teaching experiment

Parker, Shelia Latralle Blackston (1997 - AAT 9807079) :

Overcoming math anxiety: Formerly math-anxious adults share their solutions

Deterrents to participation in Web-based continuing professional education for certified public accountants in Georgia

Phillips, Ransel Warren (1997 - AAT 9807080) :

Educational facility age and the academic achievement and attendance of upper elementary school students

A nation-wide survey of college admissions personnel's knowledge, attitudes, and experiences with home schooled applicants

Perceived committee effectivness among program advisory committees in technical education

Rogers, Betty Martha (1996 - AAT 9705405) :

A study of the pedagogy and curriculum of introductory mathematics courses at colleges and universities in Georgia

Russell, Ronald Alan (1998 - AAT 9807128) :

The use of visual reasoning strategies in problem-solving activities by preservice secondary mathematics teachers

Saunders, Carol McKenna (1998 - AAT 9836979) :

The initial number sequence as a mechanism for the construction of fraction schemes

Schneider, Alfred Franz (1997 - AAT 9735563) :

The influence of affect on participation in problem-solving activities

Searcy, Mary Elizabeth (1997 - AAT 9807131) :

Mathematical thinking in an introductory applied college algebra course

A case study of teachers' perceptions about the factors which promote and inhibit the integration of technology into middle school instructional practices

Silvian, Alice Richey Felts Gay (2000 - AAT 9986894) :

Building upon epistemologies, constructs, and creativity for a training model in a distance learning environment

Smith, Lola Belle (1999 - AAT 9928994) :

The socialization of excelling women with regard to a technology career: Guides and pathtakers

Reoccurring themes, goals, and objectives in technology education curriculum literature
 

The mathematical success of poor African American first graders: An examination of the developmental niche

Whitmire, Bill Derrill (1997 - AAT 9735576) :

Teachers beliefs about the curriculum and students of courses intended to be equivalent to Algebra I

Mental models of teaching: Case study of selected pre-service teachers enrolled in an introductory educational technology course

This study sought to determine the impact of the graphing calculator on four high school students' mathematical thinking while solving problems. The students were presented with a variety of mathematical tasks to solve including both contextual, nonroutine problems and noncontextual, exploratory problems. Student interviews documented their perspective on the importance of the use of he graphing calculator when problem solving. A framework adapted from Schoenfeld's (1992) model of mathematical thinking and Berger's (1998) interpretive model of graphing calculator use was used to study participants' problem solving during task-based clinical interviews, four for each student. Two of the interviews included three pairs of contextual, nonroutine problems with pertinent data presented in symbolic, tabular, and textual representations. Two interviews contained a pair of exploratory problems that presented data in a graphical representation. A final interview was held to question the students regarding their viewpoint on the use of the graphing calculator when solving mathematics problems. The results indicate that the graphing calculator is integrated into and serves as impetus for a student's mathematical problem solving. The graphing calculator amplified the speed and accuracy of problem-solving strategies like graphing and reviewing a table of values. Other problem-solving strategies, such as using the graphing calculator's regression functions, were enabled by access to the graphing calculator accessibility. The graphing calculator encouraged the participants to use graphical approaches to solving problems and influenced their ways of thinking about the tasks presented. The graphing calculator's use also enhanced the participants' ability to focus on reasoning and to reflect on heir results. The participants most often used the graphing calculator functions that had been demonstrated in their classroom problem solving. They used the regression functions on the graphing calculator to determine symbolic models in problems with tabular data and in explorations with graphical data. They used multiple representations to examine the behavior of functions. They used trial-and-error strategies to explore the relationships between functions and their graphs. At times, scaling interfered with the participants' problem solving efforts. All of the participants agreed that the graphing calculator added speed and accuracy to their problem-solving efforts. Though the graphing calculator could add time to the problem solving when syntax errors occurred, the capability to view graphs in a timely way often helped them understand and solve problems. One participant felt failure to understand the mathematics that related to tasks performed on the graphing calculator was a form of cheating.
 

Becoming a secondary mathematics teacher: A case study

Searches for understanding and improvement in mathematics teacher education accompany a movement toward a broadened view of mathematics and a respect for the complexities of teaching and learning. The purpose of this study was to continue a line of case study research and contribute to the explanation of the process of becoming a secondary mathematics teacher. A socio-cognitive blend of constructivist and interactionist theories framed the study. The theoretical framework supported the interpretive study of a preservice and then first year teacher's responses to social structures and her goal orientations, belief systems, and orientations toward knowing. The concerns and interests of the participant, Monica, and three focus surveys guided the topics of discussion during our interviews. Individual, group, and pre- and post-observation interviews were among the data sources. As a participant observer, I worked with the participant during her 12-month teacher education program and observed her during her first year of teaching. Predetermined and emergent coding schemes contributed to the constant comparative data analysis as well as 12, 18, and 24 month summative reports. Monica's case shared many commonalties with studies in the field that documented minimal changes in beliefs and orientations. Monica, unlike many, received awards for high achievement in secondary and university mathematics and recognition for her potential as a teacher, yet grew dissatisfied and frustrated as a teacher. Her tendency toward performance goals, a received way of knowing and strong traditional beliefs restrained her responses to reform-oriented social structures in most situations. On occasion she moved away from her explainer role and into a role of experimenter. Her process of becoming a secondary mathematics teacher was not a direct movement toward a goal. It was a melding of existing role identities in familiar or comfortable situations, and it was retreat from unfamiliarity in others. The study of goal orientations and the socio-cognitive framework contributed to explanations of the process of becoming a mathematics teacher that promote the study of the complexity of the process. Recommendations for practice include increased mentoring of preservice and first-year teachers.
 

Older adults and computer courses: Preadult, adult,
and contemporary factors in participation

The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the factors across the lifespan that may influence older adult participation in computer literacy courses. The researcher interviewed twenty-four older adults who study at the College for Seniors, Center for Creative Retirement, at the University of North Carolina, Asheville, North Carolina. Twelve had either enrolled, or were planning to enroll in a computer course. Twelve did not enroll, and do not plan to enroll. For this study, the lifespan was divided into three time periods, (a) the contemporary years following retirement, (b) the adult working years, and (c) the preadult or school years. Eleven factors were identified as having an influence on the decision to enroll or not to enroll in computer courses. Five contemporary factors were found: Fulfill a practical need, priority of other interests, the desire to keep up to date, perceptions about technology, and influence of family members. There were three adult working year factors: Perceptions about mechanical ability, preference for self-directed learning, and preexisting computer skills. Three preadult factors emerged: Childhood experiences in school, childhood experiences at home, and an adventuresome spirit. Unpleasant memories of preadult experiences with mathematics had a negative influence on the decision regarding computer courses. Those who did not like math during their school years did not enroll in computer courses. Women who perceived themselves as more adventuresome were more likely to enroll in a computer course. This study examined factors across the lifespan. It was found that the contemporary factors alone may only partially answer the question of why older adults participate in computer courses. The adult and preadult factors may also influence participation decisions. Barriers to participation may have their origin in any one of the three life stages. Further research is needed to better understand which factors may be more potent in their influence on older adult decisions regarding participation in adult education courses. Similar studies on other specific courses could uncover additional factors across the lifespan, contributing to development of adult education theory.
 

Mathematics learning and goal setting

The purpose of the two studies was to establish a qualitative foundation of goal setting in the mathematics education literature. Subsequently, students' views of mathematics learning were related to goal setting, while a proposed relationship between goal setting and mathematics learning was established. Previous research regarding goal setting in education is quantitative in nature, as researchers studied the effects of goal setting among two or more groups of students based on objective performance. Results of the first study indicate that goal setting is not a neat package as described in quantitative studies, and that further qualitative analyses must be conducted to describe the trends found among goal setting, self-efficacy and performance in mathematics. Analyses include interviews and other qualitative procedures to explain differences in students' goals, goal setting, self-efficacy, and how goal setting may influence learning in mathematics. Attribution Theory as a theoretical framework and metacognition as a conceptual framework were used to establish a foundation for self-efficacy and goal setting in the first study. In the second study, analyses were based on the relationship between students' views of mathematics learning and goal setting, as well as how goal setting may affect mathematics learning. Also, a relationship between goal setting and constructivism was established. Results of the second study indicate that goal setting may foster procedural learning even though students construct their knowledge.
 

Impact of an inductive conjecturing approach
in a dynamic geometry-enhanced environment

Statement of the problem. Traditionally, teachers have taught secondary geometry in an abstract manner, incorporating deductive thinking, and requiring the use of very little previous content knowledge. The focus of this study was an investigation of a dynamic geometry enhanced environment that promoted an inquiry-based approach to conjecturing. This study examined the effects of this environment relating to students' van Hiele levels, scores on tests measuring achievement, basic geometry knowledge, students' ability to conjecture, and students' dispositions towards mathematics and technology. Methods. Research questions in this study compared high school geometry students in an inquiry-based setting with students taking the same course in a more traditional setting. Quantitative methods were used for the analysis of data relating van Hiele levels, basic geometry knowledge, tests measuring achievement, and changes in dispositions towards mathematics and technology. Qualitative methods were employed to determine if students' conjecturing improved, to assist in the description of any quantitative differences, and to provide information on student dispositions towards mathematics and technology. Results. There were significant differences between the groups in regard to measures of students' van Hiele levels, basic geometry knowledge, and dispositions towards mathematics and technology. No differences were found between the groups with regard to scores on tests measuring achievement. Significant relationships were found to exist between students' van Hiele levels and scores measuring achievement and course grades. The qualitative analysis did not suggest improvement in students' ability to write conjectures. Conclusions. The results of this study supports the use of an inductive approach to conjecturing utilizing dynamic geometry software to improve van Hiele levels, basic geometry knowledge, and student dispositions towards mathematics and technology. This study also supplied evidence that students' levels of geometric thinking, as described by the van Hiele model, were related to achievement; therefore, scores on the Van Hiele Geometry Test may be used as predictors of a student's achievement in a high school geometry course. There was not enough evidence to support the idea that students' conjecturing abilities improved as a result of the inductive approach.
 

The learning transfer of classroom management skills
from a computer-assisted instruction program
to teaching in the classroom

One of the most important areas in educational research has been effective classroom management (Doyle, 1986). A consistent finding is that effective classroom management is necessary for effective learning. Therefore, it is critical that teachers in training and teachers in the field learn to be optimal classroom managers. Classroom management skills are normally taught using traditional techniques such as lectures and books. Some of the topics covered in these courses might be more effectively taught through instructional technology, as the concepts can be presented in text and linked contextually with graphics and video. Instructional technology has been found to lead to increased transfer of learning (Clark & Voogel, 1985). Therefore, the question of this study asked ‘Does the knowledge of effective classroom management techniques gained through a computer based instruction program transfer to the management skills that teachers use in the classroom?’ The Management of Elementary Physical Education Classes (MOEPEC) program was developed to present effective classroom management skills through a computer based instructional program. Utilizing Dick and Carey's (1990) model for instructional development, the MOEPEC program was developed and includes an introductory section, a tutorial section, a multiple-choice review test, and a section for the students to develop their own rules and procedures. The test for learning transfer involved four student teachers from three different universities in North Carolina. Each participant worked through the MOEPEC program the week before beginning student teaching. Data were collected using observations, written documentation, and interviews, and were analyzed using constant comparative analysis. Findings indicated that transfer of learning did occur from the MOEPEC program to the classroom environment, and that the origin for the knowledge of classroom management skills was attributed to the participants' formal academic training, cooperating teachers, personal experiences, and the MOEPEC program.
 

The initial number sequence as a mechanism
for the construction of fraction schemes

The main hypothesis of this study, the re-organization hypothesis, was that students could use their whole number knowledge in the construction of fraction knowledge. The hypothesis was tested by teaching a child in a constructivist teaching experiment starting from the child's third year of school and proceeding through the child's fifth year of school. Tasks were designed using computer tools called “tools for interactive mathematical activity” that were developed for this teaching experiment. Videotaped records were made and were used in a retrospective analysis of the teaching episodes. The child began the study having constructed a counting scheme called the initial number sequence. This scheme contained operations allowing the child to unite collections of units into numerical composites. In these numerical composites, the focus was on the elements rather than on the composite. This implied that the part-whole relationships constructed by the child would focus more on the parts and less on their relationship to the whole. The types of part-whole relationships on which this study focused were the result of earlier research by Piaget and his colleagues into the nature of fractions in children. To construct fractions, children have to coordinate four different aspects. They have to make the appropriate number of parts, keep the whole invariant, make the parts the same size, and view the parts in relation to each other and the whole. Given the child's initial number sequence, the hypothesis was that the child could construct the appropriate number of parts and that the parts would be the same size. However, it was also hypothesized that the child would be unable to coordinate these aspects with an invariant whole and relate the parts to each other and the whole. It was found that the child had two distinct ways of operating: one in which he took the situation as an occasion of his initial number sequence and one in which he did not. When he was able to apply his initial number sequence to the situation, he only had to coordinate three of the four aspects of a fraction concept since he could assume that the parts, instances of his whole number concepts, could be taken as being of equal size. This allowed him to more easily construct fractional parts and to establish relationships between the parts. When he was unable to apply his number sequence, he had to coordinate all four aspects and this made it difficult for him to construct fractional parts.
 

Cognitive self-instruction to foster self-regulation
in regular education students

The purpose of the study was to determine the effectiveness of self-directed instruction (SDSS) on student attention, study skills, and grade averages for reading, mathematics, science, and social studies when contrasted with a comparison group receiving teacher directed study skills (TDSS) instruction and a control group receiving no special study skills instruction (NSS). Inquiry of teacher reactions to explicit study skills instruction was of secondary interest. The study involved a total of 80 participants. Three students were dropped due to excessive absences which resulted in 77 participants, an experimental group (N = 25), a comparison group (N = 26), and a control group (N = 26). The self-directed study skills intervention for the experimental group and the teacher-directed study skills intervention for the comparison group were conducted for 4 weeks for a total of 8 sessions. The control group received no special study skills instruction. The instruments used were the Attention Problems Scale and the Study Skills Scale from the Teacher Rating Scales of the <italic>Behavior Assessment System for Children</italic> (BASC) and quarter grade averages in the areas of mathematics, reading, science, and social studies. Repeated measures analysis of variance and analysis of covariance were used in the analyses. The results supported the effects of the use of cognitive self-instruction in the area of study skills at the posttreatment measure and attention problems at the follow up measure. The results failed to support a treatment effect for the cognitive self-instruction intervention in mathematics, reading, science, and social studies quarter grade averages. However, qualitative data revealed that instruction of attention focusing and study skills is a positive approach to increasing student engagement in school tasks. Suggestions for further studies include increasing the number of training sessions and integrating the training sessions as part of the regular classroom routine.
 

The relationships among components of elementary
teachers' mathematics education knowledge and
their uses of technology in the mathematics classroom

Two elementary teachers were studied to investigate the relationships among the different components of elementary teachers' mathematics education knowledge and their technology use. The teachers' mathematics education knowledge was described in terms of a four component model developed from Simon (1995): (1) philosophies and beliefs about mathematics, teaching, and the use of technology in the mathematics classroom, (2) knowledge of mathematics, (3) knowledge of activities, materials, and representations, and (4) hypotheses of students' knowledge. This study of relationships was an effort to increase mathematics educators awareness as to how mathematics education knowledge components relate to elementary teachers' use of technology in the mathematics classroom and to create ways of describing elementary teachers' beliefs about the use of technology and ways of describing actual technology use. Data were collected over a period totaling six months and included surveys, interviews, and observations. Data were analyzed using the constant comparison method described by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Two knowledge components that appeared to have the greatest affect on technology use were philosophies and beliefs about mathematics, teaching, and the use of technology, and hypotheses of students' knowledge. Other factors (that arose out of the comparison of the cases) that seemed to be related to technology use were knowledge of activities, materials, and representations; perceived confidence and success in mathematics; the role of authority; school culture; and experiences as learners. Knowledge of mathematics did not appear to have a direct relationship to technology use. It seemed to influence both teachers' knowledge of activities, materials and representations as well as their hypotheses of students' knowledge, thus impacting technology use indirectly. Three categories concerning elementary teachers' beliefs about the use of technology in the mathematics classroom and elementary teachers' actual use of technology emerged from this study. These categories are Post-Mastery, Pre-Mastery, and Exploratory.
 

High school mathematics teachers' transition to a standards-based curriculum

Making the invisible visible by challenging
he myth of the universal teacher:
African-American women postsecondary mathematics teachers

The diffusion of technological innovation delivers benefits to individuals and society, but the speed and success of the innovation depend on collaboration between technology entrepreneurs and business investors, which can be inhibited by their socialization into different, even adverse, professional cultures. Culture is largely a product of incidental learning, primarily by association with cultural &ldquo;veterans,&rdquo; not through deliberate study or instruction. Learning that can bridge professional cultures is equally due to incidental learning, which can occur as entrepreneurs and investors further mutual interests in the context of economic development centers, a.k.a. business incubators. How do publicly-funded incubators function as environments for incidental learning that bridges professional cultures, thereby facilitating innovation and its societal benefits? The purpose of this study was to describe incidental learning among members of divergent professional cultures linked through economic development centers to create innovative new businesses. The theoretical framework combined elements of professional culture and informal and incidental learning as well as the concepts of boundary-spanning and resource linkage as they relate to activities and relationships within business incubators. A case study was conducted at an incubator in the southeastern United States. Sixteen participants, including technology entrepreneurs, professional investors, and the incubator's senior staff, provided 82 critical learning incidents during semi-structured interviews. Content analysis and narrative analysis were used. Findings clustered into two broad areas, mirroring the research questions. Six categories of learning emerged, including the functional and bridging learning reported by the three professional groups within the incubator environment. (Note: During data analysis, the incubator staff emerged as a distinct professional group.) Functional learning is <italic>the acquisition of knowledge instrumental in achieving mastery in one's work performance</italic>. Bridging learning is <italic>the acquisition of knowledge during and resulting from bridging situations, comprising both the exertion and the result of conscious and unconscious efforts to enhance empathetic understanding of another's meaning</italic>. Implications for theory (1)&nbsp; emphasize the importance of context in incidental learning, drawing attention to design features, (2)&nbsp;offer an alternative to currently-held ideas about professional growth, and (3)&nbsp;suggest a new version of the resource linkage model. Implications for practice include new approaches to program and staff development and physical layout at economic development centers and other entities that might constitute bridge-building learning environments. Further research, including other research paradigms, is recommended at more incubators and in other bridging environments as well as into alternative models of professional development.
 

Technological change has been slow to come in art education classrooms, and art educators need to take the initiative to put the computer to use. Many art educators have recognized that computer technology and its applications have promise for art education. The need to more fully understand how the computer is being integrated into the art classroom provided the catalyst for this study. The primary purpose of this study is to identify how computer technology has impacted art instruction in the component areas of Disciplined-based Art Education in high school art programs in the United States and to determine what role such technology should have on teacher training institutions in the future. Qualitative research methodologies were selected to identify a sample population and to collect, analyze, and report information concerning the perceptions of nine high school art teachers regarding the use of computers in their art programs. The perceptions of these art teachers regarding the impact computer technology has had upon their art instruction and their art classroom was presented in the findings, and conclusions were made which assisted in creating a grounded theory or baseline for future computer use in the art classroom. Implications of the study for art teacher preparation programs as well as for veteran art teachers is presented in the final chapter. These implications include a rationale to add computer technology to the art program; the types of knowledge art teachers need about computers and software programs; the reasons pre-service art educators should learn to make art with the computer; the need to garner support for adding computer technology to art programs; the integration of computers into existing studio programs; the development of methodology to use the computer in art history, aesthetics, and art criticism; the use of the computer for word-processing, page-layouts, and databases; and the importance of the human element in the classroom. It was concluded that the roles of the computer in art education are muitifaceted.
 

Conceptualizing mathematics teacher development in the context of reform

Students' learning of geometry using computer
software as a tool: Three case studies

The impact of technology (including computers and probes, low friction carts, video camera, VCR's and electronic balances) on the motivation of adolescent science students was investigated using a naturalistic case study of college preparatory ninth grade physics classes at a comprehensive high school in the southeastern United States. The students were positively affected by the use of computer technology as compared to other 'low tech' labs. The non-computer technologies had little motivational effect on the students. The most important motivational effect was the belief among the students that they could successfully operate the equipment and gather meaningful results. At times, the students spent more cognitive energy on performing the experiment than on learning the physics. This was especially true when microcomputer-based labs were used. When the technology led to results that were clear to the students and displayed in a manner that could be easily interpreted, they were generally receptive and motivated to persist at the task. Many students reported being especially motivated when a computer was used to gather the data because they 'just liked computers.' Furthermore, qualitative evidence suggested that they had learned the physics concept they were working on. This is in close agreement with the conceptual change model of learning in that students are most likely to change their prior conceptions when the new idea is plausible (the technology makes it so), intelligible (real time graphing, actual light rays), and fruitful (the new idea explains what they actually see). However, many of the microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) activities and 'high tech' labs were too unstructured, leaving students bewildered, confused and unmotivated. To achieve maximum motivational effects from the technology, it was necessary to reduce the cognitive demand on the students so they could concentrate on the data gathered rather than the operation of the equipment.
 

The purpose of the study is to show how science is defined and technology is selected in an Amish Mennonite (fundamentalist Christian) community and its school. Additionally, by examining this community, information is collected on how a fundamentalist school's treatment of and experience with science and technology compare to what has occurred over time in public schools in the United States. An ethnographic approach was used to recreate the shared beliefs, practices, artifacts, folk knowledge, and behaviors of this community. The ethnographic methodology allowed analytical descriptions and reconstructions of whole cultural scenes and groups of the community. Analysis of data followed an analytic induction method. The data collected included participant observation, documentation, photographs, formal interviews, informal interviews, audiotaping, journal entries, and artifacts. Findings indicate that science is wholly subsumed by Amish Mennonite religion. Using the transmission model, the Amish Mennonites teach science as a list of facts from the King James version of the <italic> Holy Bible</italic>. This method of teaching promotes community values and beliefs. The encouragement stands in sharp contrast to the Amish Mennonite school. Technology is seen as a tool for making the community prosper. For this community to sustain itself, economic stability must be maintained. Their economic stability is dependent on the outside community purchasing their goods and services; producing these goods and services requires use of appropriate technologies. In the United States public schools, science is encouraged to be taught a way of knowing that implies a critical view about how the world works. In addition, public schools promote new and innovative technologies. Thus, they become fertile soil for developing new concepts about implementing scientific ideas and using technology. For the Amish Mennonites, rigorous standards, such as the scientific method, as addressed in the public school do not exist. In contrast, critical analysis of any new technology is always used in this Community.
 

Early elementary age children are influenced heavily by the interactions they have with their adult caregivers, especially those with their teachers. Children's relationships with their teachers have been shown to be a powerful predictor of the child's later social development. However, the teacher-child relationship is, at least in part, predicated on the expectations and belief system the teacher holds of the child. Research has found that these expectations and beliefs are influenced by a number of factors including the gender, economic background, and race of the student. Much of the past research has focused on the examination of teacher expectations of the academic-related behavior of the students. Only a few studies examine teacher expectations or perceptions as they apply to the child's social and emotional behavior even though it has been argued to be a mediator of teacher's reactions and a more potent predictor of student achievement of student achievement than teacher's perceptions of academic ability. The current study was developed from the A.C.T. Early Project at the University of Georgia. The study included 938 children in grades kindergarten through third from four southeastern schools and included 496 males and 442 females. Five hundred and twenty of the children were black, 333 were white, thirty-one Hispanic, twenty-three Asian/Pacific Islander, sixteen multiracial, and one other. Approximately forty-five percent of the students were from low economic backgrounds. All teachers in grades k&ndash;3 in each of the four schools participated in the study. Teachers were all female with forty-seven white and nine black. The teachers averaged sixteen years off teaching experience ranging from one to thirty-one years. Teachers rated their students using the Behavior Rating System for Children-Teacher Rating Scale in November. A series of multiple regression analyses were employed to examine whether teacher's rated their students differentially based on student race, gender, or economic background. The race, gender, and economic background of the children played a significant role in teacher ratings on twelve of the fourteen scales of the BASC-TRS.
 

The study was conducted to investigate the impact of alternate-day block scheduling on eighth, ninth, and tenth grade students' academic achievement in reading and mathematics, as measured by the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) and Tests of Achievement and Proficiency (TAP). Three cohorts of students from a small, rural high school in Georgia were used in the study. Students' scores, before and after the implementation of alternate-day block scheduling, were aggregated to analyze test score trends. Reading totals from standardized tests were analyzed using an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and the results indicated an insignificant loss for each of the three cohorts, after the implementation of alternate-day block scheduling. Similarly, an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to investigate the trends on standardized tests for the three cohorts, in the area of mathematics. Initially, student performances for two of the three cohorts revealed significant gains in mathematics; however, the second year of implementation resulted in significant losses. Overall, the student performances for these rural, Georgian students showed no statistically significant differences on reading and mathematics' totals, as measured by the ITBS and TAP, before and after the implementation of alternate-day block scheduling.
 

Decreasing student interest and perceived ability in college mathematics has created increased interest in improving college calculus instruction. Most pedagogical changes have revolved around improving classroom communication. Little is known, however, about the characteristics of communication in calculus and the factors that affect it. One way to study that communication is to examine the record found in the students' notes. This approach motivated the main research question of the study: What are characteristics of note taking in calculus, and what do they reveal about communication in the calculus classroom? The study was conducted in the spring semester of 1999 at the University of Georgia. Two 3-hour sections of calculus were used and were chosen for the instructors teaching the sections. Seven students agreed to participate: three from one class and four from the other. The students differed in their mathematical experience, levels of ability, and majors. Four methods of data collection were used: instructor interviews, student interviews, document collection, and classroom activities. The classroom activities resulted in researcher notes of the content written on the board, field notes on the use of graphing calculators and the textbook, and audiotapes of the lectures. Data analysis focused on the interviews and documents. The findings revealed three majors areas of note taking: factors affecting note taking, content of notes, and uses of notes. Each category was subdivided into smaller categories. The factors affecting note taking included calculus factors, instructor factors, and student factors. The content in students' notes consisted of definitions, theorems, graphs, diagrams, and sample problems. The content was further divided into two types: content from the board and other content. The study also identified that students use their notes in four ways: as an in-class reference, as a homework aid, as a study aid, and as a reference to share. The findings were used to create a framework for studying communication that expresses the relationships between the major categories and their connection to classroom communication. Implications for research and teaching are given.
 

This study investigated whether participation in a public school prekindergarten program resulted in a significant increase in the level of achievement and an increase in promotion rates of students at the first grade level as compared to students who did not participate in the program. It examined the differences among student achievement and retention rates for the types of preschool programs in an urban district in central Georgia. Finally, the study investigated whether students who were eligible for the free and reduced lunch program and participated in the public school prekindergarten program had a significantly different level of achievement and a significant increase in promotion rates compared to the other students. The independent variable was the type of preschool experience. The dependent variables were the achievement levels measured by NCE scores on the sub-tests of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills and promotion to second grade. One-way ANOVAs were conducted on the test scores. Chi-square analyses were conducted using the total group and the free and reduced school lunch sample on the promotion rate of the students. The results for the total group found that there were statistically significant differences at the .05 level of the ITBS NCE scores in the areas of Survey Battery Total, Language Total, Language Advanced Skills, Math Total, and Math Advanced Skills. Chi square analysis found that there was a statistically significant difference at the .05 level in the promotion rate. The AÑOVA found that there were statistically significant differences at the .05 level in the free and reduced lunch population in the areas of Survey Battery Total, Reading Total, Language Total, Mathematics Total, and Mathematics Advanced Skills. The Chi-Square analysis found that there was no statistically significant difference in the promotion rate for the free and reduced lunch subgroup. It was recommended that further research be conducted to analyze the curriculum programs used by each of the preschools represented in the study; and to study the effect of preschool participation to see if the effects of preschool participation fade.
 

Finding the opportunity to practice for performances with their accompanists can be difficult for many students, forcing them to do the majority of their performance preparation alone. Learning in a situation that differs from the setting in which skills will be applied is called a decontextualized learning environment. A decontextualized learning approach often results in knowledge that is inert or unusable, as well as a decrease in transferability of acquired skills or knowledge to other tasks. Intelligent accompanying technology, which enables the computer to emulate human accompanists, affords musicians individual practice sessions and lessons with their instructors in a more situated context. This study took place within the contextual framework of efforts to improve the integration of technology, new learning theories, and music education. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of practicing in a situated context on the quality of the performances by students who have prepared their music using an intelligent accompaniment software system. The treatment involved the use of a computer program called Smart<italic>Music</italic>, which allowed the students to practice with a computerized accompaniment that behaved in much the same manner as a human accompanist might. Participants were student volunteers enrolled in applied music in oboe, clarinet, or bassoon. Students were randomly assigned to a control group, which practiced alone, or an experimental group, which practiced with the Smart<italic>Music</italic> program. Participants were asked to practice a musical selection for 30 minutes for 6 days at which time a posttest recording was made using a human accompanist. After recording the posttest students were asked to complete a questionnaire A directional t-test was conducted, yielding a t-score of .682 and a significance level of .260, which did not indicate a positive statistical significance. However, the higher posttest scores from the experimental group point to a possible improvement in musical performance. Participant responses to the posttest questionnaire imply that more participants in the experimental group felt positively about their posttest performances and felt that their overall musicianship improved as a as a result of practicing with the computer accompaniment.
 

This study was conducted during two phases of a teacher education program. Four preservice secondary mathematics teachers participated in the study during student teaching. Three of them also participated in the study during the quarter immediately following student teaching. The activities in  they were involved included collaborating with and observing another student teacher, administering a student survey, conducting a classroom investigation, watching videotapes of their lessons, and participating in group discussions. The purpose of the study was to investigate preservice teachers' beliefs about gender-equitable mathematics instruction and to encourage them to examine its various dimensions (e.g., individual, pedagogical, curricular, and contextual). Data were collected through classroom observations, individual and group interviews, and individual journals. Data were analyzed using the method of grounded theory. The preservice teachers' beliefs about gender-equitable mathematics instruction were analyzed using Paine's categories of orientations toward diversity. The preservice teachers tended to locate the source and solution of equity problems in the individuals involved. By the end of the study, three participants had begun to examine their teaching practices and to consider alternative teaching methods that might promote a more equitable classroom environment. One of those participants also began to examine the social context surrounding mathematics learning. The preservice teachers' views of the mathematics curriculum and its teaching and learning were related to their beliefs about gender-equitable instruction. Their views of the mathematics curriculum and its teaching and learning were analyzed using Ernest's ideologies of mathematics education. The preservice teachers tended to associate gender-equitable teaching with good mathematics teaching. They often failed to consider the deeper implications of gender for teaching and learning. The activities in which the participants were involved during the study were designed to promote exploration, problem posing, goal setting, reflection, collaboration, and understanding of student thinking. These activities brought gender issues in mathematics to the forefront and provided opportunities for the participants to examine their beliefs and teaching practices in relation to gender equity. As they examined their beliefs and practices, they began to consider alternative teaching strategies that might promote a more gender-equitable classroom environment.
 

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of the Core Knowledge curriculum, a whole-school curricular reform model, on the achievement of middle grades students in a public middle school located in central Georgia. Analyses of covariance were conducted to determine if there were any significant differences in the eighth grade ITBS scores corrected for sixth grade ITBS scores of students who were taught the Core Knowledge curriculum as compared to students taught a traditional curriculum. Statistical analyses were also conducted comparing the proportion of ninth grade English and mathematics classes failed at the end of the first semester and the proportion of students retained at the end of the ninth grade. Two post-hoc exploratory tests were conducted comparing the students' eighth grade ITBS social studies and science scores. The results of the statistical analyses indicated that there were statistically significant differences in the ITBS scores of the students in the areas of Reading Advanced Skills, Reading Total, Mathematics Total, Survey Battery Total, and Social Studies. There were no statistically significant differences in the ITBS scores of the students in the areas of Language Advanced Skills, Language Total, Mathematics Advanced Skills, and Science. There were also no statistically significant differences in the proportion of ninth grade English classes and mathematics classes failed at the end of the first semester, and the proportion of students retained at the end of the ninth grade. The Core Knowledge curriculum was determined to be an effective alternative to a traditional curriculum to improve the achievement of middle grades students as measured by the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. In several areas, such as Mathematics Total, even though significant differences were found, there was a decrease in the means of the students' scores from sixth grade to eighth grade. Several recommendations were provided to enhance the implementation of the Core Knowledge curriculum in an effort to eliminate the decrease in the scores from sixth grade to eighth grade.
 

Problem. The purpose of the study was to: develop a survey instrument that would yield a valid and reliable measure of third - and fifth-grade student preferences for national standards recommended by the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS); use this survey instrument to examine relationships among grade levels, social studies content themes, and learning activities; and suggest possibilities for student involvement in organizing social studies curriculum according to national standards. Procedures. Items were written to reflect the NCSS content-themes. A happy-face-sad-face adaptation of a five-point Likert-type scale was used to show student preferences for each item. Participants were also given the opportunity to share thoughts, feelings, ideas, and suggestions in the form of open-ended written responses. A thirty-item survey instrument was pilot tested and refined to yield preference scores across two grade levels and five learning activities. Eighty-seven students and four teachers in the Loganville Elementary School, Walton County, Georgia, participated in the pilot study. The refined survey was completed by 292 third- and fifth-grade students in the Walton County, Georgia, school systems. Estimates of reliability were calculated. Class interviews, coding of free responses, and outside audits of theme items were used to assess validity. Content themes were the repeated measures. Subjects were blocked according to grade level and randomly assigned to five learning activities (group work, reading stories, writing stories, playing computer games, and being in a play). Eight research questions were investigated. These included four interactions and main effects for grade level, activities, and content themes as well as a qualitative research question dealing with the contextual nature of the research setting. An analysis of variance provided measures of difference and detected any possibility of interaction among the variables. Effect sizes were calculated. Results. Theme means showed above average preferences for all ten social studies content themes. Split-half reliability correlation coefficient was.866. There were no interactions nor differences among the five learning activities. Third graders were more enthusiastic than fifth graders. Global studies and history were preferred over all other themes. Science/technology and geography were preferred over civics and political science. There were no other significant differences. Conclusions. Reliability and validity were shown for measurement of student preferences. Further studies could expand the theme items to include value-oriented theme items, and research, linking preferences to learning outcomes, is also recommended.
 

This study explored a way to describe and explain how teachers and students negotiate the validity of what counts as public knowledge in the school mathematics class. The question of what works as proof was explored through an analogy with the practices of mathematicians, where proof is a fundamental tool to constitute what counts as valid knowledge. Two tasks were set to address the problem: to account for some of the validation practices that occur naturally in mathematics classes and to characterize theoretically the system of regulations and norms behind those practices. A corpus of events was constructed from videotaped lessons of 8 teachers teaching 18 high school mathematics courses. To respond to the first task, events were examined to characterize different practices in which participants in mathematics classes account for the validity of their productions. Nine validation practices were differentiated on the basis of the characteristics of the discursive work accomplished: generic example, isolated example, crucial experiment, ostension, pseudomathematical justification, metaphor, symmetry, symbolic calculation, and official proof. To respond to the second task, a structural model was developed to characterize the activities of the class as nested knowledge games in which the teacher and the student play different roles in pursuing various forms of knowledge as the stakes. These games served to model the bind imposed on the teacher (to transmit culturally recognized mathematical knowledge and to facilitate the student's construction of meaning) and the choice available to the student (to adapt to the mathematical demands of the milieu or to respond to the didactical demands of the teacher). The teacher's actions were conceptualized as mathematical and not merely managerial. Sociodidactical and sociomathematical norms were proposed that regulate the ways of knowing that develop in each game. The norms were assembled into a framework to help an observer explain how participants divide the responsibility of accounting for the validity of a production and how they collaborate in conferring status on those accounts. The simultaneous games appear necessary to enable the learner's construction of meaningful mathematical knowledge and for that knowledge to have a recognizable cultural status.
 

Group presentations of psychotherapy cases have long been used in training mental health professionals as a way to foster critical thinking about the conceptualization and treatment of clients. In graduate level psychology programs, as in professional clinical environments, the specifics of a psychotherapy case are conveyed to colleagues through a case presentation followed by a group discussion constructed to offer professional consultation and peer supervision. As case presentations take place in group settings of various sizes, group dynamics occur among participants that may enhance or detract from the learning experience. An alternative format common in business settings uses computer software, categorically as Group Support Systems (GSS), to facilitate work-group tasks. The purpose of this research was to determine which discussion format was more beneficial from a training perspective. Specifically, this study was designed to assess differences between the participation and contribution dynamics for the two case presentation formats. This dissertation was conducted as a field experiment using a single-factor repeated-measures design. The independent variable was the format of the case presentation discussion (traditional vs. GSS-facilitated). The dependent variables were the quality and quantity of participation; the satisfaction level, perceived learning, and contribution levels of the group participants; the satisfaction level and perceived effectiveness of the idea generation process for the case presenter; the impact of the group feedback on the treatment of the therapy case; and, any carry-over effect of the GSS format upon return to the traditional format. The results of this research elucidated the strengths and weaknesses of the each case presentation format. The GSS-facilitated discussions allowed participants greater opportunity to contribute and to offer more proposed solutions to the presenter about the therapy case. Traditional discussion method facilitated greater participant and presenter satisfaction, higher perceived quality of interaction, and superior learning. Implications for peer-group supervision and future use of the technology are discussed.
 

This study was designed to determine whether significant differences existed in the mathematics achievement of two groups of educationally deprived students: Chapter One sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students in Dodge County receiving Jostens IBM integrated learning system math instruction during the 1994-1995 school year; and Chapter One sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students receiving Chapter One services but not receiving Jostens integrated learning system math instruction in Dodge County during 1994-1995. The intact groups were selected from Chapter One eligible students in one rural Georgia public middle school. An analysis of covariance was used for the statistical analysis of the 1995 ITBS mathematics scores--concepts and estimation, problem solving and data interpretation, computation, and total--using 1994 ITBS mathematics scores as covariates. Retention/promotion data were analyzed using a test of proportionality, and the attendance data were analyzed using a t-test. The findings indicated no significant differences at the.05 level of significance in concepts and estimation, problem solving and data interpretation, and computation between those students receiving Jostens instruction and those students receiving Chapter One services but not Jostens instruction. Using the Johnson Neyman technique in analyzing the total scores, it was found for those students who scored below 25.97 on 1994 math total scores, the students who received Jostens instruction had significantly higher 1995 math total scores. For those students who scored above 41.61 on 1994 math total scores, those students who received traditional Chapter One instruction did significantly better on 1995 math scores. There was no significant difference in attendance rates between the two groups of Chapter One students, but there was an indicated significant difference in number of grade level promotions--the group receiving Jostens instruction had a significantly higher number of promotions.
 

A secondary mathematics teacher's understanding of teaching with the graphing calculator was studied with respect to the relation between changes in her teaching and what happened in her classes when the graphing calculator was used as an everyday instructional tool. Classroom observations of two college preparatory courses and interviews with the teacher were the main data-collection methods. The teacher's descriptions of changes in her teaching were analyzed into four components based on Goldsmith and Schifter's model for teacher transition: qualitative reorganization of understanding, orderly progression of changes, mechanisms and sociocultural contexts, and motivational and dispositional factors. From the findings of the study, another component, teacher understanding of students, was added to the model. With the advent of the graphing calculator, the teacher repositioned herself as an orchestrator of mathematical activities in the classroom. The changes in her teaching showed not a unitary progression but a sequence of continual restructurings of her practice. The mechanisms for transition arose from the interplay of various forces such as ideas from Standards-based reform, collegial support, and her understanding of the changes in her students and society. The transition included the teacher's motivation and disposition, which helped her undertake change and kept her curious about other ways of teaching. In each of the two courses, ten teaching techniques with the graphing calculator were identified. The techniques showed clearly how the use of the calculator was changing the ways in which mathematics was being taught. In the second-year algebra course, the teacher emphasized not only the graphing approach, but basic algebraic skills as well as connecting algebraic and graphing approaches. In the third-year algebra and trigonometry course, she did many mathematical experiments and tested the students' ideas with the help of the graphing calculator. This study documented how the graphing calculator is changing both the content and pedagogy of secondary mathematics. It revealed that teachers may have unique interpretations of reform and may use technology differently in different courses. The study provides a framework that helps research move beyond conjectures about the capabilities of calculators into the actual use of calculators in the mathematics classroom.
 

The nongraded program has been implemented from 1934 and is a regular program in the State of Kentucky from the academic year of 1992-1993 instead of the graded program. While the graded program caused the problems of retention, unequal educational opportunities between boys and girls, and unmotivating curriculum, the nongraded program brought the importance of individualism, diverse values, and innovation as a school reform. The nongraded program delivered content based curriculum and flexible instruction using team teaching, ability vertical grouping, continuous progress and individualized instruction. This study implemented a meta-analysis, mediating effects analysis and a factor analysis with 98 studies which were in forms of unpublished reports, Dissertation Abstracts InternationaI, ERIC Document Reproduction Service, periodicals, and books. For meta-anlaysis, the nognraded program related 98 studies produced effect sizes. The overall effect size was.17, reading effect size was.16, language effect size was.13, vocabulary effect size was.17, mathematics effect size.10, social studies effect size was.79 with, science effect size was.33, self-concept effect size was.25, attitude effect size was.25, attendance effect size was.24, social skills effect size was.17, anxiety relief effect size was.05, motivation effect size was.47, girls effect size was $-$.08, and boys effect size was.07. The vote counting method showed that all the 16 variables had more positive studies than negative studies, which meant that the more studies favored nongraded program to the graded program. Mediating effects were examined with variables of program characteristics, grade, publication style, study year, program implementation period, and students number. A variable of program impelemntation year had significant mediating effects. Factor analysis was done with the principal component factor solution and varimax rotation using 13 variables' Pearson Product Moment Intercorrelations. The selected factors were affective domains, cognitive domains, and program characteristics. The factors showed that the nongraded program were associated with the affective domains than the cognitive domains. From the findings, the nongraded program is expected to be implemented through K-12 grade to improve students affective domains and cognitive domains. The nongraded program is superior to the graded program in both of the affective domains and cognitive domains.
 

Adult educators continue to be increasingly interested in exploring effective methods of instruction for use in computer-assisted learning environments. Recent statistics show that computer-assisted instruction is being used by a record number of Americans; this significant trend is even more prominent for older adults, and is expected to increase dramatically during the next decade (Goldman, 1995; and Lawhon, 1996). The primary aim of this study was to determine the extent to which tailoring computer software to accommodate individual cognitive styles improved learning. More specifically, by varying the degree of structure employed in a computer-assisted instruction learning environment, this study examined the effect(s) of different software formats on the learning process. This enabled the systematic study of the relationship between learning style, as measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and software environments that invoke either high or low levels of structure. The results indicated that the degree of structure significantly impacted learning performance and these effects interacted differentially as a function of cognitive type. Further, this aptitude x treatment condition was not affected by attitudes toward computer technology. The findings provide additional support to the notion that cognitive styles play a significant role in adult learners' performance, at least in CAI learning environments. More importantly, intentional variations in the degree of structure imposed in a learning environment can differentially enhance learning performance as it relates to naturally-occurring differences in cognitive types. In addition, the findings suggest that differences in learning styles should not be underestimated, as it may be possible for software developers to incorporate additional choices for users so they can manipulate the degree of structure present within their personal learning environment. Finally, with respect to instructional design, the findings strongly suggest that software developers should not underestimate the utility of learning models. Further implications pertaining to the design of computer-assisted instruction learning environments for both adult educators and software developers are discussed.
 

The purpose of this study was to investigate college students' understanding of linear modeling when using a spreadsheet template to model population data in a mathematical modeling course. Schoenfeld's (1992) &ldquo;framework for exploring mathematical cognition&rdquo; was used to examine the students' mathematical thinking and problem solving during the course. The framework consisted of five categories: the knowledge base, problem-solving strategies, monitoring and control, beliefs and affects, and mathematical practices. These categories provided an organized structure for decomposing the students' understanding of linear modeling into manageable parts and analyzing these parts. Because of the coherent nature of the categories, they also provided a lens for looking at a students' understanding of linear modeling as a whole. The study was conducted during fall semester of 1998. A qualitative case study approach was used for this research. Data were collected from observations, interviews, and written documents. The data were then analyzed according to the qualitative method of constant comparison that was described by Corbin and Strauss (1990). Four main themes emerged from the data analysis. First, the students were procedurally oriented. They seemed obsessed with their procedures for finding the optimal linear model. Second, the students treated the spreadsheet template as a &ldquo;black box,&rdquo; and hence, failed to make effective use of available representations of the linear modeling situation. Third, the students' life experiences influenced their interpretation and sense-making (mathematical practices) of the modeling situation. Finally, the students formed opinions, made decisions, and adequately communicated their ideas about linear modeling when pressed to do so.
 

The problem for this study was to compare the achievement of a target group in reading and mathematics as measured by data gathered from the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS). The target group included 39 students who participated in a 9-month, after-school tutorial program in a rural, central Georgia middle school during the 1994-1995 school year. Baseline data were recorded for the participants in (a) failure rate, (b) academic achievement in reading and mathematics, and (c) discipline referrals. The method used to conduct the study was an after-school tutorial program that provided students with homework assistance and tutoring in reading and mathematics. The study included 39 middle grade students who reported for tutoring two days per week (Tuesdays and Thursdays) from 3:30 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. Results of the program revealed a significant difference in the mean gain score in reading and reduction in failures of the target group as compared to a comparable group who did not attend the after-school tutorial program. However, there was no significant difference in the mean gain score in mathematics and the mean difference in discipline referral rates for the target group as compared to a comparable group who did not attend the after-school tutorial program. The researcher concluded that an after-school tutorial program can be used as a strategy to improve academic achievement if implemented appropriately and if students consistently attend. In addition, the benefits of an after-school tutorial program are directly impacted by the focus of the program.
 

Research suggests that teacher education programs have minimal impact on preservice teachers' views of teaching and learning. The purpose of this research was to understand elementary preservice teachers' experiences in a reform-based mathematics methods course and the concurrent field experiences in the hopes of shedding some light on why a minimal impact occurs. Symbolic interactionism served as an orienting theoretical framework, in particular its construct of perspective and how individuals use perspectives to interpret situations.  Perspectives described by Baxter-Magolda that students tend use to make sense of their educational experiences were used to analyze the data. Other perspectives arose from the data of individual participants. Case studies focused on five female elementary preservice teachers during the first of two field-based mathematics methods courses. Four semi-structured interviews, course assignments, journal writings, and observations of the participants during the on-campus classes and weekly field experiences informed the case studies. The qualitative analyses of the data used the method of analytic induction. Findings indicate that the preservice teacher viewed learning to teach as collecting individual activities and strategies to teach specific topics. They were not interested in looking for connections or general reform issues. Thus, even when the content was perceived by preservice teachers to be practical, they still had difficulty making connections between course content and experiences in classrooms. Findings also suggest that while the preservice teachers used course language and attempted to use course ideas, their interpretations or understanding of the ideas were typically shallow or different from what the instructor intended. Moreover, how the preservice teachers defined their situation in the field experiences affected what they did with students as well as what they perceived to had learned from the experiences. Based on the findings, it is suggested that teacher educators should become aware of how their preservice teachers define their current situation. Furthermore, teacher educators should focus on the meaning preservice teachers have for course ideas.  Otherwise, we may slip into believing that our preservice teachers are interpreting our courses in ways that we are intending, when actually this may not be the case.
 

The work of Lakoff and Johnson on cognitive models and with the van Hiele theory of cognition were theoretically contrasted and used as a framework for studying the concept of angle in 16 fourth and fifth graders in the United States who were using a special curriculum in geometry.  From an analysis of responses to a written test and an interview, students' cognitive models were identified, categorized, and related to the van Hiele levels. Classes were observed, and the instructional materials analyzed. Students' concepts of angles were grounded idiosyncratically in image schemas produced by intrinsic bodily experiences with objects (corners, points), or actions performed on objects (opening, turning), actions performed by objects (opening, pouring), or actions performed in relation to objects (going around). The category of angles includes basic-level entities with rich mental images. Angle is a cluster category composed of seven metaphoric models: angles are points, angles are interior corners, angles are sources, angles open, angles turn, angles are contours, and angles are two connecting lines. These models may be the source of the mathematical models used by mathematicians. Van Hiele Level 1 was associated with images and motor actions. It was connected with the formation of a basic-level categorization. At Level 2, propositional models emerge, complex metaphors are used, students understand several cognitive models simultaneously, but prototype effects are also shown. Complex mathematical activities were detected involving similarity-creating metaphors. The instructional models taught in class were similar to the students' models. The teachers addressed angle as a basic-level category, discussed its submodels, clarified the boundaries, and established cognitive reference points. They gradually increased the use of complex metaphors and of several models. The study enriched the characterization of the first two levels of van Hiele theory and demonstrated the value of categorization theory in understanding how our comprehension of mathematics is rooted in basic human attributes pertaining to the material and social conditions of human life. The embodiment of mathematical ideas by the material world, including our bodies, needs greater emphasis in all facets of mathematics education.
 

The purpose of this study was to compare the perceived self-efficacy of teachers and their utilization of the computer technologies CD-ROM databases, database programs, electronic mail, presentation programs, spreadsheet software, word processing programs, and the World Wide Web for subgroups determined by the following variables: (1) Age; (2) Gender; (3) Years of teaching experience. The population consisted of elementary, middle, and high school teachers who had completed at least one computer technology class at the Department of Education Technology Training Center located at Northeast Georgia Regional Educational Training Center in Winterville, Georgia. The Computer Technologies Survey (Kinzie & Delcourt, 1991) was utilized for this study to measure utilization of computer technologies and perceived self-efficacy of CD-ROM databases, database programs, electronic mail, spreadsheet software, and word processing programs. For this study, the survey was expanded to include sections for measuring perceived self-efficacy in using presentation programs and the World Wide Web. A 76% rate of return was achieved. Descriptive statistics of means, standard deviations, and response percentages were used to analyze utilization each of the computer technologies. A series of one-way analysis of variance procedures at the .05 level of significance were computed using the computer technologies as the dependent variables based on age, gender, and years of teaching experience as the independent variables. Data collected from the utilization of the computer technologies indicated that word processing is utilized more frequently that the other computer technologies with 34% of the teachers using it weekly and 51% using it daily. The mean score of 4.28 on the 5-point scale for word processing indicated a high usage of word processing. In the one way analysis of variance procedures used to measure perceived self-efficacy of the computer technologies, no statistical significance was found between the means of age or gender in measuring perceived self-efficacy for the specific technologies. In the one way analysis of variance procedure to measure perceived self-efficacy of teachers using the computer technology of electronic mail based on years of teaching experience as the independent variable statistical significance at the .05 level was found and the null hypothesis for electronic mail was rejected. There was a difference between the means of 1-10 and 19-34 years of teaching experience. Based on the findings, the following conclusions have been drawn: (1) Teachers utilize word processing programs on a regular basis. (2) Teachers who have more years of teaching experience appear to have a higher self-efficacy toward electronic mail.
 

This study analyzed the role of the graphing calculator in a situation in which pairs of students worked two problems related to find polynomial functions that matched some criteria. Four groups of two undergraduate students majoring in mathematics education at the University of Georgia worked the problems, one using the graphing calculator and the other without it, during a 1-hour session. Prepared hints were given when the students were stuck. A framework adapted from Schoenfeld (1985) and Artzt and Armour-Thomas (1990) used for analyzing the protocols of the students' problem-solving sessions helped in dividing the protocols into different episodes: Read, Analyze, Explore, Plan, Implement, Plan and Implement, Verify, and New Information and Local Assessment. Students' performance was different from what was predicted with respect to the use of the graphing calculator and the strategies used for solving the problems. The students spent more time when the graphing calculator was available and used it differently in each problem. The type of problem was the strongest influence on how the graphing calculator was used.
 

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the Georgia Remedial Education Policy and Program and their implementation in Bibb County. A secondary purpose is to determine whether Georgia remedial education eligible students in Bibb County are making the necessary progress to attain grade level status through their remedial instruction. Research questions one and two asked whether there would be any statistically significant difference in the grade equivalent academic reading or mathematics achievement of remedial education eligible 2nd, 3rd, 4th, or 5th grade students in the Bibb County Public Schools who placed between the 26th and the 50th percentile in reading and mathematics on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Research question three asked is the Georgia Remedial Education Program effective with those students it serves in grades 2, 3, 4, and 5 in Bibb County. To answer the research questions, the researcher made a comparison of the academic achievement of Remedial Education Eligible 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade students in Bibb County Public Schools to the academic achievement of 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade students in Bibb County Public Schools who scored between the
26th and 50th percentile in reading and mathematics on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Students in Bibb County Public School who would receive duplicate services (e.g., Chapter 1) were eliminated from the study. A two-tailed t-test was used on the grade equivalent gain scores of the groups to determine the significance of the difference between the experimental and the control group. The two-tailed t-test was run on sets of post tests because Bibb County uses a longitudinal method of testing, therefore, the research was done from Spring to Spring to Spring. The findings of the research in reading showed that 9 out of the 12 comparisons between the experimental groups and the control groups were not statistically significant in favor of the remedial education eligible students. The findings of the research in mathematics showed that 11 out of the 12 comparisons between the experimental groups and the control groups were not statistically significant in favor of the remedial education eligible students. It was concluded from the results of the t-test computations in this research, that reading remedial education eligible students made no greater gains than the students that did not have remedial education services. It was also concluded from the results of the t-test computations in this research, that mathematics remedial education eligible students made no greater gains than the students that did not have Remedial Education services.
 

This is the story of two African American female college students who have been successful with school mathematics. The students' success was framed in the context of their schooling and mathematical experiences. Operating on the premise that African American students' voices have been ignored or silenced, the metaphor of voice was used as the basis of the study. This study gave the participants the opportunity to speak for themselves about their perceptions of and responses to their experiences. This study employed a phenomenological research strategy. Phenomenological research describes subjective experience of individuals (Tesh, 1984, 1987). It is aimed at interpretive understanding and describes individual experiences from the viewpoint of the individual (Tesh, 1984). Data were collected in the form of initial surveys, autobiographies, and interviews. Data were analyzed using the strategy of constant comparative analysis (Strauss, 1987). This study took a critical theory stance in that it placed the students' schooling and mathematical experiences in a broader social context. Critical theory was used to explicate the social constructs of the students' experiences. The data suggest that social forces such as inequalities and inequities existing in society were evident in the students' schooling and mathematical experiences. The students perceived their schooling and mathematical experiences differently. The data suggest that the students' perceptions of their experiences played a significant role in the responses they engendered, and those responses were key components in becoming successful with school mathematics. However, the dissonance of the students' voices suggest a need to be attuned to individual African American voices. The students' stories raise concerns about particular schooling practices such as tracking and traditional mathematics teaching that were oppressive for them as African American students. Their stories also engender hope due to the support of caring educators and African American mathematics teachers who served as role models and contributed to their success with school mathematics.
 

Teachers perform many tasks in an instructional environment, such as assessment, planning, student record keeping, and reporting student progress to parents, students, and administrators. Occasionally, teachers turn to an electronic support tool for assistance in managing these daily tasks. An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is an example of how computer technology can be a valuable tool for teachers. The purpose of this study was to investigate how the usage of an EPSS can impact the teacher's work performance, and attitudes toward computer technology. Furthermore, this study provides a framework for the implementation of an EPPS in an educational setting, specifically at a middle school. The study consisted of four cases describing the experiences of middle school teachers who used an EPSS. The data sources included observations, questionnaires, anecdotal logs, EPSS database records, and interviews. The data was analyzed using collective case study techniques. Teachers used the EPSS primarily for completing student progress reports. The progress reporting task was performed in less time. Furthermore, the teachers' attitudes toward using the EPSS were influenced by their performances. Computer usage, performance, and attitudes were interconnected and were affected by environmental factors, such as work responsibilities and accessibility to computers. The characteristics of the technology innovation, change agent, technology support personnel, and the innovation user were additional factors that affected usage, performance, and attitudes. Of interest was the teachers' need for intervention strategies to encourage and sustain use. Attitudes toward the EPSS and technology in general were affected by the interactions with the person responsible for technology support and by the ability to customize the computer program employing a user-centered design. This study generated three models that might be applied to the implementation process for EPSS in school settings. The first model presents technology implementation as an adaptive process involving four phases: collaborative planning, intervention, usage, and diffusion. The second model describes the elements that affect usage, performance, and attitudes toward computer technology. The third model refers to the implementation responsibilities and defines the roles of the innovation user, change agent, and technology support during the implementation process.
 

Four seventh grade students participated in a constructivist teaching experiment which extended over a period of four months during the spring of 1999. The purpose of the study was to investigate the thinking processes of the students as they attempted to solve tasks which are generally perceived as involving rate, ratio and proportional reasoning. The students used manipulatives within a computer microworld in their efforts to solve such tasks. The thinking processes were analyzed from the perspective of the types of cognitive schemes of operation the students used as they engaged in the given problem situations. The students' ways of operating were interpreted, whenever possible, using schemes found through former research by Steffe and Cobb (1988), Steffe (1988, 1992, 1994, 1995), Saenz-Ludlow (1990) and Olive (1996, 1999). The students' schemes of operations were further categorized according to Kaput and West's (1994) levels of proportional reasoning, which were also analyzed in terms of the above schemes of operating. A pretest was given before the study began and a post test was given after the teaching sessions ended. Kaput and West's levels of proportional reasoning were used to categorize the levels of schemes employed by the students in their attempts to solve the given tasks. In the teaching experiment the students were first presented with fractional reasoning tasks that would be difficult to solve using school math rules and algorithms. They were then presented with the problems involving rate, ratio and proportional reasoning, including work problems, mixture problems, money problems and pole problems. It was found that all of the students were able to modify their available schemes of operation to produce the schemes of operation, particularly reversible operations, considered to be necessary to solve the fractional tasks. It was also found that the students used their fractional reasoning in solving the rate, ratio and proportion problems in a manner analogous to students' use of their knowledge of whole numbers in building up their fractional knowledge as found in former research. (Saentz-Ludlow, 1990) The results of the study give clear signals that the students who relied the most on procedural uses of their fraction knowledge were met with more severe constraints in extending their fractional schemes to the more sophisticated schemes of operating found in the solutions of the work, mixture, money and pole problems in this study. It was found that the students' fractional operations formed a basis for the schemes of operation they used in their solutions of such word problems.
 

The purpose of this study was to compare the congruence of student and parent views of the importance of specific student learning goals Parents and students rated the importance student learning goals as they were emphasized at the University of Georgia, and then rated the same goals as to how important they ideally should be emphasized as a part of a four year college education. The Student Learning Goals Inventory (SLGI) examines the perceived importance of 40 student learning goals. The goals represent the broad range of learning outcomes that may result as part of a four year undergraduate experience. Each goal was rated on a scale from no importance to very high importance as to how it was perceived to be emphasized. Each respondent then rated the same goal as to how important that goal should have been emphasized thus allowing for a comparison between the perceived real and ideal. The Student Learning Goals Inventory allows for a comparison between parent and student conceptions of what is important in an undergraduate education. The SLGI was administered through postal mail and email to students and parents during the spring of 1999 and fall of 2000 at the University of Georgia. Comparisons were made analyzing statistically significant differences between parents and students, and between demographic groupings. Parents and students placed significantly different levels of importance on 21 of 40 student learning goals. Students placed greater emphasis on a variety of student development goals while parents placed greater emphasis on a mix of student development and academic goals. Significant differences were found for students by gender and class level. Significant differences for parents were found by gender and education level. The analyses of parent and student ratings of student learning goals were also compared to ratings by student affairs professionals and faculty (Papish, 1999). Statistical differences were found between real and ideal goals for students on 38 of the 40 student learning goals, and for parents on 39 learning goals. Significant differences were found by gender, class, and level of education. Few differences were found by generation of college attendance for students. Significant differences were found between parents, students, faculty, and student affairs professionals on 19 of 40 student learning goals. Significant differences between existing goal emphasis and ideal goal emphasis were found for all groups. Results of this study have implications on many levels for colleges and universities. The results may help parents and students better understand what each expects from the undergraduate experience. At the institutional level the results have implications for how public calls for accountability are consistent or inconsistent with the college's aim for undergraduate education. The results provide empirical information representing a snapshot of the mental models of students, parents, student affairs professionals, and faculty regarding undergraduate education and student learning.
 

Language and numbers are fundamental and unique features of humans. There have been many studies on language or numbers, but not many on both of them. Some researchers have argued that language influences cognitive development by conducting experiments with monolingual children. However, there is little research on how language plays a role in the development of numerical concepts of bilingual children. The purpose of this study was to investigate and document how Korean-English bilingual children developed their numerical concepts focusing on reflective some main questions: (1)&nbsp;What counting types do the children exhibit? (2)&nbsp;What is  the relationship between linguistic proficiency and the use of counting strategies? And (3)&nbsp;What is the relationship between bilingualism of numerical concepts? The participants were seven 5 or 6 year-old-Korean-English bilingual children, 3 were males and the others were females, who lived in Athens or Atlanta, Georgia. The children were paired, except for one, and were taught approximately once a week for 30 to 40 minutes for a period of 32 weeks. The children were provided with some counting materials, including the TIMA:TOYS computer program, to use in various counting activities such as counting visible and partially or totally screened collections, recognizing spatial patterns, counting sequences of sounds and movements, number word sequence tasks and games incorporating counting. The analyses focused on the ways and meanings of the bilingual children's counting strategies while they were using two languages based on the theory of counting types by Steffe, von Glasersfeld, Richards, and Cobb (1983). The characteristics of the children were documented as they developed numerical concepts. A model of the cognitive process of a bilingual child was suggested. The findings of the study showed that the bilingual children used more various counting strategies and developed their counting schemes faster than previously studied monolingual children. Linguistic proficiency of the children appeared to be related to the use of counting strategies.
 

Math anxiety disadvantages adults in school, work, and home settings. The nature, causes, effects, and treatments of math anxiety are well-studied. However, we do not understand how adults overcome it. The purpose of this study was to understand the nature of the transition that adults make as they move from being math anxious to being more comfortable with mathematics. A qualitative approach was selected to gain an in-depth understanding of the experiences of those who had successfully 'reversed' their math anxiety. Twelve formerly math-anxious adults were purposefully chosen as participants. The sample was diverse in terms of age, gender, race, and educational level. Data were collected through a series of semi-structured in-depth interviews and personal documents. Three areas of inquiry were examined: (a) the participant's mathematical history, (b) how the participant overcame math anxiety, and (c) the impact of overcoming math anxiety. Analysis of the transcripts using the constant comparative method resulted in inductively derived categories descriptive of the experiences of overcoming math anxiety during adulthood and how those experiences affected the participants' lives. A six-stage process of overcoming math anxiety was uncovered. First, adults perceived a need to become more comfortable with math. Recognition of the need was followed by making a commitment to address the problem. Third, the math-anxious adults took specific actions to become more comfortable with math. Learning how to get the most out of math, they refined their study techniques, used learning tools, attended tutoring sessions, and applied relaxation techniques. These time-consuming actions required them to make sacrifices. Fourth, the adults recognized that they had reached a turning point and were no longer math anxious. The adults' mathematical perspectives changed. Finally, the adults became part of the support system for others seeking help with math, just as others had helped them overcome their math anxiety. Three conclusions were drawn from this study: (1) overcoming math anxiety during adulthood involves making a transition of major magnitude; (2) there is an identifiable process of overcoming math anxiety during adulthood; and (3) a support network is a necessary factor for overcoming math anxiety during adulthood.
 

Although distance education is experiencing rapid proliferation in the United States and has become a viable alternative or addition to traditional education, there is little research on the deterrents to the use of Web-based courses or programs for continuing professional education. Neither the deterrents to Web-based education by professionals in general nor the relationship between various deterrents and the personal and professional characteristics of individual participants has been examined. This study used a mailed self-completion survey to examine the perceptions of in-state, fellow certified public accountants in the state of Georgia (N = 7,886) concerning deterrents to participation in continuing professional education using Web-based education. Four broad dimensions of deterrence to participation in Webbased education for certified public accountants in Georgia were identified through factor analysis. The two most powerful deterrents were: Concerns About Electronically-Mediated Communication and Concerns About the Quality of Course Offerings. The other two were Concerns About Access to Technology-Associated Resources and Concerns About the Availability of Necessary Personal Resources. The vast majority of respondents reported access to the technology and personal characteristics necessary for participation in Web-based education activities. However, the percent of respondents using Web-based education for continuing professional learning is minimal.
 

The purpose of this study was to investigate and determine the relationship of the age of the learning facility to the academic achievement of students taught within those facilities. This investigation specifically attempted to ascertain whether a significant relationship exists between the academic achievement of upper elementary school students of three qualifying elementary schools in rural Georgia and the age of the facilities in which their learning occurred. The academic achievement of third, fourth, and fifth grade pupils of the selected elementary schools on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills in the areas of reading and mathematics were investigated. The attendance tendencies of the students were also examined. The design of this study included the dependent variables, student academic achievement and attendance tendencies, and the independent variable, school facility age ('new' or 'old'). The variables of varying administrators, teachers, socio-economic status, and peer group were accounted for by the mere nature of the study's restrictions. Each facility when it was opened, was a strict replacement facility. The students, teachers, and administrators were simply moved from one facility to the next, thus negating any variation of the aforementioned variables, except the one variable of interest here, the age of the educational facility itself. Each new facility was of the exact same architectural design, opened the same school year, and equivalently equipped. This study supports a  relationship between educational facility age and academic achievement and attendance tendencies of upper elementary school students in rural Georgia in 1993-95. Previous studies compared student achievement and attendance tendencies, from old facilities to renovated or new facilities, but the researchers could not control for variables such as community support, parent involvement, ability levels of instructional personnel, educational philosophy of individual teachers and administrators, curriculum design(s) utilized, and local policy. This study, by design, was developed to ensure that the only major variable involved was the facility age in which instruction was delivered. Eighty-six subject-related references are included.
 

A nation-wide survey of college admissions personnel using electronic mail technology was conducted to assess their knowledge and attitudes regarding home schooling, and their experiences with home schooled applicants. A content analysis of admissions policies (n = 21) for home schooled applicants was conducted to identify common characteristics. The survey was e-mailed to 1289 National Association of College Admissions Counseling (NACAC) members with 210 responding (response rate 16%). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multiple regression procedures were used to identify differences in responses based on key demographic variables: institution type, position title, size of institution, number of years of admission experience, and number of contacts with home schooled applicants. This study revealed that admissions personnel have a working knowledge of home schooling based on experience with home schooled applicants and have favorable attitudes toward home schooling. What admissions personnel do not have is objective criteria for measuring a home schooled applicant's potential for success at their institution. The majority of the institutions that participated in this study did not currently have policies outlining the criteria for making enrollment decisions about home schooled applicants. Most respondents agreed that the home schooling movement will significantly impact higher education. Thus, the stage is set for a policy development process to begin which could include leaders of the home school movement and key admissions personnel leaders. The results of this process can be threefold: (1) objective measures for evaluating home schooled applicants; (2) tracking mechanisms for identifying home schooled applicants; and (3) systems for monitoring the progress of home schooled students while at college. More research needs to be done examining the factors that influence home schooled students' access to and success in higher education.
 

The relationship between published directives for effective advisory committee performance and what advisory committee participants perceived as effective performance was studied. Advisory committees of TAC/ABET accredited mechanical engineering technology programs throughout the USA were surveyed. A scale was developed which evaluated the performance of advisory committees in terms of the predictor variables comprising Hackman's orienting framework for the study of work group performance. <super>1</super> The framework consists of six interrelated variables, three work-group defined variables and three organization defined variables. The three work-group defined variables: <italic> ample effort, sufficient knowledge &amp; skill</italic>, and <italic>task appropriate performance strategies</italic>, are alternately looked upon as enabling conditions and as the process criteria of group effectiveness. The three organizational defined variables: <italic>group structure, organizational context,</italic> and <italic>coaching &amp; consultation</italic>, are looked upon as points of leverage influencing the performance of groups. The study found that the observed variance in the criterion variable, <italic>perceived advisory committee effectiveness</italic>, could not be explained by differences in the background characteristics of committee members or by differences in the roles the members performed on the committees. For example, no significant variation in the respondents' gender, race, professional status, type of teaching experience, and technical experience was observed. Sufficient variability was observed in the other background variables but no statistically significant evidence was found that the observed variance in the criterion variable and the predictor variables of the study could be explained by the variance in Hackman, respondents' age, highest level of education attained, teaching experience, or type of technical experience. The committee role fulfilled by the respondents (running meetings or giving advice) was not statistically significant in explaining the observed variance in respondents' perception of committee effectiveness or in explaining the observed variance in Hackman's predictor variables. Five of the six Hackman predictor variables had high positive individual correlations (r <math> <f> &ge;</f> </math> 0.80) with the criterion variable, perceived advisory committee effectiveness. Individually, each of the Hackman predictor variables was found to be significantly capable of statistically explaining perceived advisory committee effectiveness. However, only two of the Hackman predictor variables, <italic>ample effort</italic> and <italic>organizational context </italic>, were statistically significant in collectively explaining the variance in perceived advisory committee effectiveness. Simultaneous multiple regression analysis suggested that together the predictor variables, <italic>ample effort </italic> and <italic>organizational context</italic>, could predict (explain) 81.5 percent of the variance in perceived committee effectiveness. <super>1</super>Hackman, J. R. (1990). Work teams in organizations: An orienting framework. In J. R. Hackman (Ed.), <italic>Groups that work</italic> (<italic>and those that don't</italic>): <italic>Creating conditions for effective teamwork</italic> (pp. 1&ndash;14). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
 

Introductory mathematics courses prepare students for an increasingly technological world provide students with quantitative skills needed in a global economy, and are the final exposure to mathematics for a large number of students in higher education. Highlighting the importance oftechnology and mathematical literacy to the nation's workforce, the mathematical professionalsocieties have issued three major reports over the last decade dealing with reform in curriculum and instruction in introductory mathematics. This study examined introductory mathematics in the state of Georgia by compiling a state-wide profile of the mathematical sciences departments in their efforts to revise curriculum, reform teaching, and integrate technology and compared the findings to the recommendations of the national professional mathematical societies. Data weregathered by questionnaire sent to mathematics departments chairs at 60 institutions of highereducation in Georgia. The findings indicate that mathematics department chairs support theprofessional societies goals for reform in curriculum and pedagogy with the exception that computers and graphing calculators are not viewed as essential for introductory courses. The mathematics departments, however, differ greatly in implementation of the reforms. Lecture is still the predominate means of instruction with lesser use of case study, cooperative learning, and laboratory projects. There is no consensus on the use of graphing calculators and computers in introductory courses, and their use varies greatly by institution and type of introductory course. Overall, the findings indicate that there are significant efforts by individual professors and departments to reform introductory mathematics in the state of Georgia; however, there is no consistent, state-wide pattern of curricular change and instructional reform. The data reveal an awareness by the department chairs of new strategies, technologies, and instructional methods as recommended in the reform literature; yet, recent changes are limited and sporadic, and few departments indicated any future plans for instructional or curricular revision in introductory mathematics.
 

The purpose of the study was to understand and describe mathematics visualization and visual reasoning strategies of preservice secondary mathematics teachers. Mathematical visualization is the process of constructing a visual representation for a given mathematical problem and using the representation in problem-solving. Visual reasoning strategies are the control processes of mathematical visualization. I chose a case study method because of its power in generating useful information about cognitive processes. My research was a set of three case studies designed to communicate the participants' perspectives. I hoped to develop theoretical generalizations about their mathematical visualization from these perspectives. Each case yielded its own regularities. From this, I was able to construct a model of each participant's problem solving throughout their problem sessions. The final analysis focused on the commonalities among all participant's models of problem solving: objects and actions. The case studies showed the participants' internal and external representations as objects. The  internal representations were objects of the mind, while the external representations were objects on paper, simulated on the computer, or actual physical objects. The participants performed various actions, such as measuring and transforming, on these objects during the problem solving sessions. Visual reasoning was found to be a metacognitive activity. From the three models of participants' problem solving, I observed that the basic units of discussion for visual reasoning strategies are also object and  actions. From a metacognitive view, the actions available for mathematics visualization became objects to be selected and organized. The various selections and organizations of these objects varied with the participants, but four factors seemed critical for visual reasoning: mathematical knowledge, spatial ability, verification, and purpose of measurement. Mathematical knowledge is related to the number of representations, performance components, and different organizations of performance components. Spatial ability is related to the quality of representations, performance components, and organizations available for the problem solver. Purpose of measurement is related to understanding the problem and the initial reasoning that produces a representation. Method of verification is related to explaining the problem to others and defending the final solution.
 

This study was designed to determine the effect of the study of a foreign language in the elementary school on scores on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) and to analyze student-participant attitudes and abilities. The study was performed on a specific program, the Georgia Elementary School Foreign Languages Model Program (Model Program), which has content-related as well as language and culture goals. A dependent sample t-test was performed comparing foreign language and non-foreign language treatment groups on the third-grade subtests of the ITBS. A blocking design used school composite scores as the unit of analysis $(n=18).$ Foreign language students had significantly higher scores $(p<.05)$ on the mathematics subtest of the ITBS than did students who did not take a foreign language. Reading scores of foreign language students showed an aggregate increase over the scores of non-foreign language students, but the increase was not statistically significant $(p>.25).$ A 25-item questionnaire was administered to 822 fourth-grade Model Program student-participants enrolled in one of four foreign languages: French, German, Japanese or Spanish. The students indicated positive attitudes towards their foreign language class, towards foreign language study in general and towards the people who speak their foreign language. The students expressed a moderate degree of anxiety in speaking the language to a native speaker, but did not have a high degree of anxiety in their foreign language class. Students indicated that they had been studying content-related subjects in their foreign language class, especially math. They also self-reported that they had skills in speaking, reading and writing their foreign language. For listening comprehension, one third of the students indicated that they understood their foreign language teacher. The majority of students, however, indicated that they understood their teacher sometimes. The findings were that foreign language study does not interfere with basic skills and may even be a factor in improved test scores. This content-related FLES design did lead to both foreign language proficiency and improvement in content areas. Finally, the fact that students did have listening proficiency even though they believed that they did not always understand their teacher, supports the extensive use of the foreign language at Krashen's  (1983) input + 1 level for all aspects of classroom foreign language instruction.
 

An investigation of the influence of affect on participation of high school students in mathematical problem solving activities was conducted over a period of two school years. During the first year the focus of the study was on mathematics problems 51 algebra students selected on their own from given problem sets. These problem sets consisted of 22 problems with three different degrees of difficulty. Students were not told which problems to do, but were only required to earn a minimum number of points that were associated with each problem. The focus during the second year of the study was on participation in problem solving activities that were mandatory. Observations about and questionnaires of 119 students were used for finding out what factors caused students to engage or disengage in mandatory problem solving activities. Of the three categories of problems that were offered students selected primarily the easiest type of problem to earn the minimum number of required points. More difficult problems were clearly avoided. The more difficult problems were also immediately rejected or eventually abandoned when they were mandatory, unless the teacher intervened with strategies that reduced the emotional arousal experienced by students. Since predominant beliefs, attitudes, and emotions of many students revolved around aspects that were not school or mathematics related, problem solving activities were perceived only as low-level plans and were therefore abandoned when a major emotional arousal occurred, unless external interventions counteracted these pre-existing trends. The teacher became the primary intervention agent in the dynamic interplay between students and problem solving activities. Although the teacher did not have any direct control over reaction patterns of students about problem solving activities, indirectly he had an impact on participation in problem solving activities by responding in certain ways to students' emotional status. The response patterns of the teacher evolved out of events that were repeatedly experienced when interacting with students. A variety of arousal patterns were found and appropriate intervention strategies were suggested and compared with objectives and goals of NCTM publications about problem solving.
 

Schoenfeld's (1992) 'near decomposition' of mathematical thinking: the knowledge base, problem solving strategies, beliefs, monitoring and control, and practices provided a framework to look at the complexity of an applied college algebra student' s mathematical thinking. Particular attention was given to the inherent and student specific relationships between these categories. An intrinsic case study was conducted during the winter of 1997. Data were collected in the form of informal interviews, classroom observations, student work, and an exit interview at the end of the course. Analysis of data followed the methods of grounded theory provided by Glaser and Strauss (1967). The knowledge base of the student was predominantly a mixture of facts, algorithmic procedures, and informal knowledge. Belief-driven memory programs attended primarily to that information necessary for success in the applied college algebra course. Informal knowledge helped her fill in the gaps when procedural knowledge did not meet demands made from external sources. The student relied on the 'finding a related problem' strategy to work routine problems. When confronting non-routine problems, she seemed to use basic strategies that reflected Polya's sense of heuristic reasoning, rather than the ones explicitly taught in the course. As for monitoring and control, the participant's approach to routine problems was little more than 'checking the answer.' However, in non-routine problems, her metacognitive repertoire included planning, testing, and even abandoning non-productive strategies. She mostly disregarded self-regulation strategies in other mathematical thinking exhibited in the interviews. The participant seemed to believe that there were two types of mathematics: classroom mathematics and mathematics for everyday life. Another significant aspect of her belief structure focused on the real-world contexts associated with the course mathematics. The influence of these beliefs was extensive in her attempt to make sense of the situations she encountered. Finally, the student's practices substantially differed from those espoused by the mathematics community. She seemed to have few social encounters to help shape her mathematical thinking. The participant had to rely on other resources, like intuitive knowledge and personal theories, for her interpretation and sense-making of mathematics.
 

After three decades of widespread restructuring efforts, many American schools remain resistant to change. Recently, many educators have stated that technology must be central to any significant school reform. While use of technology has had an impact on American schools, there have been no major transformative results yet. Clarke Middle School (CMS) in Athens, Georgia has, since 1994, been involved in a state-funded model technology project designed to meet the needs of a widely diverse student population. This ethnographic, action-research study examines the history of the model technology project; the extent and manner of integration of technology into CMS teachers' instructional practices; changes in teachers' instructional practices; and factors that have promoted and inhibited the integration of technology into instructional practices at CMS. The study was conducted by a participant researcher who has served as grant co-author, assistant principal, and most recently, principal of CMS. Key factors promoting integration were (a) adequate access to equipment and related resources; (b) reliable, on-site technical and logistical support; (c) staff development and training; and (d) school-wide support for technology initiatives, including support provided by staff members for each other. Key factors inhibiting integration were (a) the need for more and/or better configured equipment; (b) lack of time for planning and training; (c) lack of consistent on-site support; and (d) failure to clearly articulate or sustain the purpose and design of the technology project. There was a drop-off in technology integration and student use of technology during the second implementation year of the project. Integration could not be sustained without technical support and training, and without a sustained commitment from the entire staff, based on shared beliefs about the purposes of education and technology. Without consensus, decisions were often made on the basis of expediency or for other reasons that did not serve students and the technology project well. The 'Instructional Technology Improvement Plan' was designed to address these concerns by providing (a) a mechanism for developing a shared, curriculum-based technology; (b) revised short- and long-term technology planning based on students' instructional needs; (c) technical support, training, and staff development; and (d) equitable access to equipment.
 

The purpose of this research was to conduct a case study on two faculty members who are experienced in using distance education in delivering instruction in higher education settings. A major goal was to understand those indicators that mark the progress of the individuals on the continuum of success toward becoming skilled at integrating instructional content with distance learning technology. Three perspectives were examined: personal epistemological beliefs, individual implementation of constructivist theory, and the presence and use of one's own creativity. Data for the case study were collected over a period of one academic semester using a variety of strategies for triangulation: semi-structured interviews, interactive television class observations, review of document artifacts, and testing for creativity levels with the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT). In interviews, the two faculty members identified the need for teacher training, time for distance course preparation, and  faculty rewards as motivational elements for teachers to engage in distance learning. The lack of these elements was recognized as an impediment to the progression of skills needed in this type of learning environment. Observations in the distance learning classrooms indicated that various elements needed in that environment were: consistency in active student involvement; various levels of interaction among students and teachers; successful classroom management; valuable teacher characteristics, such as flexibility, risk-taking, and problem-solving; constructive teaching techniques; effective motivational strategies; appropriate communications; good technology skills among all users; relevant application and transfer of knowledge; learner-centered environments; and effective evaluation techniques. From this research, several components for the integration of technology and curriculum were identified and outlined in a new model framework, MAKE TIME Training. The training model provided a skeletal outline of a user support network for the technology trainer, the subject-matter teacher, and the learner. Each user would first identify and acknowledge the impact of his or her own beliefs about teaching and learning while engaged in  the educational process of acquiring knowledge. In following the integrated steps of this framework, the users would then have individual responsibilities in this collaborative learning  process while playing an interactive role with other users.
 

The technological gender gap represents a well-established societal pattern. This dissertation  sought to investigate the experiences of women who have taken career paths into traditionally male dominated mathematical, scientific, and/or technological (MST) fields, and who have excelled in their respective professions. The study began with a single overarching question, &ldquo;What internal and/or external factors aided the participants' success in technological environments, and/or hindered their progress? &rdquo; The study had theoretical underpinnings in several research areas:  (1) &nbsp;cognitive, social, and psychological child development, (2) &nbsp;educational philosophies, (3)&nbsp;play as socialization agent, and (4)&nbsp;feminist theory. Given this framework, the study examined the historical enculturation and socialization thesis of the technology gender gap. Differing perspectives were presented The qualitative design included in-depth interviews with 12 women. Six participants were MST career veterans (guides) who have been through the ins and outs of forging paths towards change. Six were younger women (pathtakers) who have recently made technological related career-choices. Since prior research indicated adolescence is a crucial time for the emergence of  MST related gender disparities, the study included questions concerning the participants'
 adolescent years. This design facilitated a holistic understanding of the participants' abilities, attitudes, and relationships. The study's results reinforced prior research, which indicated that  role models, scaffolding, and collaborative, hands-on, reality-based assignments facilitate girls' interest in MST. New findings revealed that question asking and risk-taking traits were participant commonalties. The infusion of play elements into MST learning environments, by parents and/or teachers, emerged as strong motivating factors&mdash;especially low threat, high challenge tinkering activities. Fathers, male peers, and/or siblings were strong role models/mentors in encouraging tinkering and providing scaffolding. Recommendations for parents, educators, and the greater society were given. These suggestions called for fostering girls' MST cognitive growth, via teaching and learning methods that focus on strengthening their self-esteem, as well as increasing their interest in, and awareness of, MST's relevance to their fives. Communities, schools, and parents were urged to form partnerships in this effort.
 

The literature reflects an evolutionary growth in the development and emphasis of diverse technology education curriculum themes, organizers, and approaches to technology education curriculum development. Although there is agreement on the importance and need for technology education curriculum, conflicts and disagreements have arisen as to what should be the consensus curriculum theme and content. The purpose of this study was to examine, identify, and synthesize philosophies, themes, goals, and objectives of technology education curriculum described in the professional literature using an integrated research review. A qualitative analysis using grounded theory as the functional framework was used. The integrated research synthesis model was used to guide a review of relevant technology education curriculum literature. An integrated research synthesis is an extended literature review that serves as the primary research method. Identified research questions provided a broad qualitative direction for the review of relevant technology education curriculum literature. The technology education curriculum themes, goals, objectives, and philosophical directions were identified. Upon completion of the research synthesis, a framework and category structure was developed to present the findings. Results revealed many conflicting ideas exist within the technology education community as to what the curriculum emphasis of technology education should be. Disagreement was found not only in the content of curriculum but also to the philosophical foundation of development of technology education curriculum. Because of the range and diversity of viewpoints about the themes, goals, and objectives of technology education curriculum reflected in the literature, technology researchers and educators had difficulty in identifying or agreeing on a curriculum focus. Disagreement about the content of technology education curriculum has also contributed to a lack of agreement at organizational, state, administrative, and most importantly, the classroom teacher levels.
 

This study investigated the possible reasons for the mathematical success of 6 poor African American first graders by examining the mathematical events of home and school for each in terms of the developmental niche. Components of each niche investigated and described were the physical and social settings of the mathematical events, the customs of child care and the parental beliefs and expectations. Data were collected through parent interviews, administration of a parental belief scale, parent diaries, home observations, teacher interviews, teacher diaries, and classroom observations. The investigation occurred over a 10-week period. Research findings highlighted similarities in the niche of home and school for each child in the following aspects: (1) a variety of social configurations and social interactions daily; (2) emphasis on the same 3 mathematical categories of events; (3) emphasis on direct instruction; (4) a variety of materials available for mathematical events; and (5) consistency in the amount of time each child  spent working alone. These similarities were based on the results of 433 diaries, 9 interviews, 6 belief scales, and 42 observations. The study offers descriptive information concerning children from non-mainstream segments of society and ways in which they exhibit competence in mathematics. The study presents implications for further research and practice.
 

The purpose of this study was to describe some beliefs that secondary teachers had about the curriculum and students of courses intended to be equivalent to Algebra I. In order to identify common and diverse beliefs among these teachers, a 16-item survey questionnaire was sent to 200 teachers of algebra-equivalent courses in two Southeastern states where Algebra I or its equivalent was a requirement for graduation. Twelve teachers were selected to take part in a series of interviews and classroom observations to better understand how beliefs about the curricula and their students affected practice. This study applied qualitative methodology using an phenomenological research perspective. While many teachers believed that Applied Mathematics and Fundamentals of Algebra (two course that met the algebra graduation requirement) were not equivalent in content or depth to Algebra I, they did believe that these two courses were an improvement over general and remedial mathematics. Beliefs about students appeared to influence teacher practice more than beliefs about curricula and this determined how teachers implemented the intended curriculum. The beliefs teachers held about their students seemed to determine to what degree they felt responsibility for their students learning. Teachers in this study described students enrolled in algebra-equivalent courses as 'different' from college-intending students. This difference was caused for despair and discouragement for some teachers while others accepted it with an optimism that they incorporated into their practice.
 

Teachers are called upon to perform many tasks and fill many roles in the K&ndash;12 educational environment. One method for helping preservice educators to understand these myriad roles is to examine their mental models of what &ldquo;teaching&rdquo; is and then to expand these models. Mental models are individual conceptions that contain the primary components of a concept and the ways these components function in a system as well as how they are related to each other. This study examined the mental models a group of preservice teachers held of &ldquo;teaching&rdquo; both before and after their completing an introductory course in educational technology. Student generated concept maps were used to depict the mental models participants held. Post course interviews were used to gather additional data regarding selected participants' thoughts concerning teaching and technology. Concept mapping is one technique for assessing students' mental models of complex concepts, such as  &ldquo; teaching. &rdquo; Though some depiction of mental models can be derived using concept mapping, any single concept map provides only a snapshot of the map author's mental model at that moment in time. Post mapping interviews are useful in the interpretation and clarification of the concept mapping process. Concept maps may serve as teaching tools as they promote reflective thinking by the concept map's author. This study suggests concept maps can serve as a useful, but incomplete tool in assessing the student's mental model of &ldquo;teaching.&rdquo; This assessment can be useful to the teacher educator as a source of information about students' knowledge gaps and misconceptions.